英语议论文写作三部曲
文 | 季益广
图 | Startup Stock Photos
一般议论文的开头都需要一段introduction（引言），这是议论文写作三部曲的第一部。这一起始段需要对主题加以介绍，常常提供一些背景信息和当下的形势，叙述最近发生的、吸引我们关注这一主题的事件，也是我们对这一主题感兴趣的理由。
比如：
1）指出某种情况恶化 In recent years our diet has become increasingly poor.（近年来，我们的饮食习惯越来越差。）；
2）指出报纸上常报道的情况 Almost any day of the week you can look at a newspaper and read stories about COVID-19.（每天看报纸几乎都会读到关于新冠肺炎的消息。）；
3）指出政治变化 Many governments now recognize the need to protect the environment.（很多国家的政府现在认识到保护环境的必要性。）；
4）指出对读者造成某种影响 Biological security is perhaps the biggest global problem that our generation will face.（生物安全很可能是我们这代人将面临的最大的全球问题。）；
5）指出对读者带来的好处或坏处 Almost all of us would benefit from taking more exercise in our lives.（我们几乎所有人在一生中都将从锻炼身体中受益。）
我们知道，议论文赋予作者就特定主体展示其阐述观点能力的机会，要成功完成一篇议论文，对观点想法的有效组织至关重要。因此，要想写好议论文，确定论点是一个关键。
首先，应该保证论点的正确性，不能偏离题目或所供材料所表达的主旨；论点还应当鲜明，有明确的褒扬立场，不要含含糊糊、模棱两可。
其次，要让自己的论点新颖，写出自己独到的见解，只有独到新颖，你写的论文才有价值。比如在论述economic development（发展经济）和environmental protection（环境保护）关系时，秉持lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets （绿水青山就是金山银山）的理念就是一个新颖独到的论点。
确定论点后，作者就要围绕论点展开论述，将论题的论据（arguments）逐个摆出加以讨论，这就是议论文三部曲的第二部-body（主体）。
主体部分有多种引入的方式：
1）以某一点观点开头 On the whole, spending a number of years in prison does tend to have a positive effect on the criminal.（总体来说，坐几年牢的确会对罪犯产生正面影响。）
2）增加额外的解释和理由 In fact, most criminals leave prison with far fewer opportunities to earn money in an honest way than they had before they went in.（实际上，大多数罪犯离开监狱后比进来之前诚实赚钱的机会要少很多。）
3）在结尾概述观点 This all suggests that prison may not be the most effective form of punishment for minor crimes.（这一切表明，监狱可能不是对轻罪最有效的惩戒方式。）
4）探讨影响 The problems caused by watching television a great deal in childhood might be impossible to reverse once the child is old enough to make properly informed decisions about their lifestyle and health.（童年时由于看太多电视引起的问题，等孩子大到可以为自己的生活方式和健康明智做主时，可能已经无法挽回了。）
论据就是为了证明自己论点的正确所引用的材料或所举的例子。使用论据时，首先要保证论据处处紧扣中心论点，处处为论证中心论点服务。其次，要保证论据的真实性（authentic），所引用的材料、所列举的例子或数据，都必须是真实的，不能凭自己印象随意来写。
另外，所引用的材料或所列举的例子，应当尽可能选典型的，只有典型的材料和例子，才能有力地说明论点的正确性，才有最强的说服力（convincing）。比如，如果要证明美国民主人权的虚伪性，那么举出白人警察跪杀黑人弗洛伊德案，就再恰当不过了。
为了充分证明自己的观点，写议论文时，往往要求作者能从不同的角度，多方面地展开论述，以便使作文主题更加深刻，突出。要想达到这个要求，不仅需要尽可能多地收集材料，更要做到使材料和论点相互照应，让材料始终围绕论点来论述。
比如，谈到全球环境，作者可以列举世界十大环境问题：
1）全球变暖（global warming）和海平面上升；
2）土壤流失（soil erosion）和耕地面积减少；
3）森林资源减少和deforestation（去森林化）；
4）水荒（flood）制约发展和影响生活；
5）臭氧层（o-zone layer depletion）遭破坏威胁地球生命；
6）生物物种灭绝（species distinction）和物种减少速度加快；
7）人口爆炸（population explosion）危及自然生态；
8）有害人工化合物（harmful artificial compounds）转移；
9）有害垃圾转移；
10）残留物质污染环境。从这些问题中可以看出环境保护刻不容缓。正是这些问题材料的正确使用，可以强有力地证明作者突出环境保护重要性和绿水青山必要性的观点。
最后一段conclusion（结论），即论述文三部曲中的最后一部，本段就论题所持观点进行概括总结，有时还需对今后的做法提出建议。可以遵循以下步骤：
1）总结观点 As we have seen, there are many arguments on both sides of the debate.（正如我们所看到，辩论双方都持有很多论据。） In the final analysis, I believe that prison is a valid way of dealing with crime.（总而言之，我认为监禁是应对犯罪的一种有效方式。）
2）提出建议 However, it should not be seen as the only option for reducing the amount of the crime.（然而，它不应被视为减少犯罪数量的唯一选择。）Encouraging any form of exercise is a positive thing.（鼓励任何形式的锻炼都是有积极意义的。）
3）承认有与所持观点相悖的其他论据 Although there are many good educational programs around, these do not tend to be popular among children.（尽管有很多好的教育节目，但他们似乎不受孩子们欢迎。）
值得注意的是，结论应建立在论据的说服力上，而不是自己的观点上。避免使用I think…（我认为 ……）等显得过于个人化（personalizing）的短语，但使用来自个人经验的论据是完全可以的。比如According to the recent research of my team, the number of people suffering from heart disease has reached record levels.（根据我的团队的最新研究，心脏病患者人数已达到历史最高水平。）
对于problem-solution（解决问题型）作文应当提出可能的解决办法，每个问题单独成段。并探讨实施这些解决办法的好处以及可能涉及的困难。务必将自己认为最好的解决办法放在最后一段提出。方法如下：
1）引出解决办法 Our possible solution would be to reduce the number of cars allowed into the city center during working hours.（一个可能的解决办法是减少工作时间内进入市中心的汽车的数量）；
2）指出好处 This would solve the immediate problems of pollution.（这将解决眼下的污染问题。）；
3）用条件句提出问题 However, people would still need to travel into the city center to get to work, and unless more is invested in public transportation, the economy would quickly suffer.（不过，人们仍需要前往市中心工作，而且如果在公共交通上不能增加投资，经济很快会遭受损失。）
下面提供一些作文素材，要求以The Urgency of Environmental Protection为题写一篇议论文。结构如下：
1）Introduction (present situation of global environment);
2) Problems and reasons (seriousness of the environment and its causes)；
3) Solutions and future prospect (technically, legally, globally…etc.)
Problems (Introduction):
1.Currently, we’re facing a variety of urgent environmental problems. For example, …
2.Nuclear waste will pollute the environment for centuries.
3.There are many factors that have a huge damage on the environment. For example, …
4.Industrial development is causing widespread damage to the environment.
5.Some parts of tropical America have seen over 70 % deforestation.
6.The land is severely eroded as a result of wide spread deforestation and intensive farming.
7.The environmental effect of acid rain could be disastrous.
8.Typical symptoms of acid rain include deformed and dying trees and trees with vastly reduced numbers of leaves.
9.People will have to get used to more flooding and draughts as climate change becomes a reality.
10.We are already starting to see the effects of global warming.
Reasons (Development)
1.Scientists estimate that global warming could cause a six degree rise in temperature by 2100.
2.One of the most devastating consequences of global warming could be the melting of the polar ice caps.
3.Current methods of farming are damaging the natural environment.
4.Emissions from cars are harmful to the environment.
5.In some developing countries, protection of the environment is not a primary concern.
6.Logging has led to the destruction of the natural environment.
7.The increase in the incidence of skin cancer is directly due to the hole in the ozone layer.
8.Western countries are overwhelmingly responsible for current levels of greenhouse gases.
9.Modern farming , especially the pesticides and growth hormones, is leading to the desertification of large areas of the planet.
10.We’re not doing enough to protect the environment from the pollution.
Solutions (Conclusion)
1.Today people are becoming far more aware of environmental issues.
2.We need to find ways of producing energy without destroying the environment.
3.Government should do more to protect the environment.
4.More money needs to be invested in developing greener fuel sources.
5.International controls are needed to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
6.We need to take drastic steps to protect the environment from pollution.
7.Strict laws shall be made to prevent the pollution of the environment and develop environmentally friendly projects.
8.People need to live in harmony with the nature and conserve the environment.
9.It’s about time that we started cleaning up the environment.
10.You can reduce your environmental footprint by recycling as much as you can.
参考文献
Longman Exams Dictionary [M]. 北京：外语教育与研究出版社 Pearson. 2014
本文作者 | 季益广
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